•Dense and crack-free molybdenum parts can be fabricated by selective laser melting method.•Due to the high packing density and laser absorptivity, spherical powders are crucially important for the densification.•The formed interlocking grain boundary under proper scanning strategy can resist crack growth.•The cracks can be suppressed by applying a designed supporting structure.In this study, dense and crack-free pure Mo has been fabricated by selective laser melting. In order to obtain densification, the precursor powders were granulated and processed by plasma spheroidization. Parts of density of 10.16 g/cm3 (99.1% of theoretical density) were obtained with spherical powders because of its increased laser absorptivity and packing density. The crack growth behaviors under various scanning strategies are analyzed by electron backscattered diffraction. The interlocking grain boundary structure, which increased the crack growth resistance and caused crack deviation, is formed under layer-wise rotated laser scanning. Cracks can be fully suppressed by applying the designed supporting structure. This study provides a novel route for the fabrication of complex Mo parts.Download high-res image (266KB)Download full-size image

The blistering behaviour of tungsten surfaces exposed to very high fluxes (1–2 × 1024/m2/s) of low energy (38 eV) deuterium plasmas was investigated as a function of ion fluence (0.2–7 × 1026 D/m2) and surface temperature (423–873 K). Blisters were observed under all conditions, especially up to temperatures of 873 K. The blister parameters are evaluated with blister size, blister density and surface coverage. The blister size always peaked at less than 0.5 μm and no blister larger than 10 μm is observed even at high fluence. The blister densities are found in high magnitude of 106 blisters/m2, with the surface coverages lower than 2%. The formation of cracks in the sub-surface region was observed by cross-section imaging. Changes in blister size and shape with fluence and temperature suggest processes of predominantly nucleation and subsequent growth of blisters. The smaller blister size is considered to be caused by a combination of flux-related effects such as enhanced defect formation in the near surface region, reduced deuterium diffusivity and relatively short exposure times.

•The blistering behavior was severe on the [111] surface, while the [001] surfaces are the most resistant to blister formation. The CVD samples with [001] texture showed good resistance to blister formation, so it is suggested that it may be effective to alleviate blisters by texturing of W.•The blister formation model based on the plastic deformation of W can well explain the heterogeneity of blister formation and the different shapes of blisters on surfaces with different normal directions. The [111] surface is more prone to blister formation, because the surface layer is easily deformed by the D2 gas pressure beneath the surface. The blister edges and steps were speculated to be induced by the slipping of dislocations.The orientation dependence of blister formation induced by D plasma exposure at low temperature (about 523 K) on rolled tungsten and chemical vapor deposition (CVD) W samples was studied by scanning electron microscopy and electron backscatter diffraction. Severe blistering was observed on grains with surface normal directions close to [111], while the [001] surfaces are the most resistant to blister formation. Cavities induced by D2 gas were observed beneath [111], [110] and [001] surfaces, independently on whether blisters were observed on the surface or not. The [111] surface is more prone to blister formation, because it is easily plastically deformed by the D2 gas pressure. Some blister edges and steps were perpendicular to [110] directions, which may be induced by the slipping of dislocations on {110} planes. The blister morphology induced by D plasma can be well explained by the blister model based on plastic deformation mechanism.

Magnetic properties of thermally aged Fe-Cu alloys with pre-deformation have been evaluated to improve the understanding of using magnetic technology for the nondestructive evaluation (NDE) of irradiation embrittlement in reactor pressure vessel (RPV) steels. Fe-Cu alloys with and without pre-deformation were thermally aged at 500 °C and the changes in microstructure, mechanical properties and magnetic properties were determined. It is found that the strain-induced dislocations recover and the Cu-rich particles precipitate during the aging process, and the magnetic properties variation depends on the combined influence of these two factors. From the point of view of NDE, a fully tempered or annealed microstructure is favorable before RPV is put into service. These results improve the understanding of magnetic property evolution in actual RPV steels and help to develop NDE theory for irradiation embrittlement.

Flat-type W/Cu plasma-facing components have been developed for the new generation divertor of the Chinese Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak. Surface modifications of such actively water-cooled W components following short and long pulse high heat loading coupled with He particle loads with fluence of 3 × 1022 m−2 have been investigated. An adiabatically loaded W block was investigated as a comparison and exposed to short pulse loads. Blistering was observed on all sample surfaces, but was less pronounced on the components than on the W block, due to the significant lower surface temperature caused by active cooling. For components, longer pulse loads gave rise to a rougher surface. Furthermore, most blisters on components are found to be less than 1 μm in diameter, with just a very few blisters larger than 1 μm, observed only in some near 〈1 1 1〉 grains.

Surface topography of polycrystalline tungsten (W) have been examined after exposure to a low-energy (38 eV/D), high-flux (∼1.1–1.5 × 1024 m−2 s−1) deuterium plasma in the Pilot-PSI linear plasma device. The methods used were scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), positron annihilation Doppler broadening (PADB) and grazing incident X-ray diffraction (GI-XRD). After exposure to high flux D plasma, blisters and nanostructures are formed on the W surface. Generation of defects was evidenced by PADB, while high stress and mixture of phases were detected in depth of 50 nm by GI-XRD. TEM observation revealed fluctuations and disordered microstructure on the outmost surface layer. Based on these results, surface reconstruction is considered as a possible mechanism for the formation of defects and nanostructures.

•Two damage structures were observed on W component surface under He beam heating.•Blistering was more obvious in near <111> grains.•Porous structure appeared in the grains away from <111>.•A loose layer caused by He aggregation was formed in near-surface region.Micro- and nano-scale surface damage on a W divertor component sample exposed to high heat flux loads generated with He atoms has been investigated through SEM, EBSD, AFM and FIB-SEM. The component sample was supplied by the Institute of Plasma Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences (ASIPP) and AT&M company, China, and the loading experiment was performed in the GLADIS facility at IPP Garching, Germany. Two typical damage structures were observed on the surface: the first one is characterized by obvious blisters and some grooves formed from ruptured blisters, and the other one is a kind of porous structure accompanying with at least ∼25 nm surface material loss. As the grain orientation is further away from <111>, the damage morphology gradually changes from the former structure to the latter. The possible damage mechanism is discussed.

Nanostructures and pinholes formed on tungsten surface exposed to high fluxes (1024 m−2 s−1) deuterium ions at 943 K and 1073 K were studied by scanning electron microscopy and electron backscatter diffraction. Nanostructure formation is observed at 943 K and 1073 K, and exhibits a strong dependence on the surface orientation. With increasing fluence, pinholes appear on the surface and are mainly observed on grains with surface normal near [1 1 1]. The pinholes are speculated to be caused by the rupture of bubbles formed near the surface. The formation of pinholes has no obvious relationship with the surface nanostructures.

Surface modifications and deuterium retention induced in tungsten by high fluxes (1024 m−2 s−1) low energy (38 eV) deuterium ions were studied as a function of surface temperature. Blister formation was studied by scanning electron microscopy and electron backscatter diffraction, while deuterium retention was measured by thermal desorption spectroscopy. Blisters are observed on the surface exposed at different temperatures, ranging from 493 K to 1273 K. The blister density and D retention decrease with the increasing exposure temperature. The formation of blisters at high temperatures is attributed to the high flux of D plasma. At 943 K, with the increasing fluence, there is trend to the saturation of D retention and blister density. The defects caused by plasma exposure have an important effect on the D trapping and blistering behavior. The formation of blisters has a strong relationship with slipping system of tungsten.

The melting behavior of W–1wt%La2O3 under high magnetic field was studied in the present paper. Rolled W–1wt%La2O3 was exposed to pulsed laser beam with peak power density of 3.4 GW/m2. A perpendicular external high magnetic field with strength up to 8 T was loaded simultaneously during the exposure. The re-solidified structures are characterized. With increasing magnetic field, the shape of the melt layer turns more concave and the depth of the edge of the melt layer decreases. The concentrated shape of the melt layer is related to the reduced heat transfer by the suppression effect of the external magnetic field on the liquid metal convection.

The dislocation boundary structures of 2060-T8 alloy during bending were investigated by backscattered electron imaging, electron backscattered diffraction, and misorientation axes maps. Experimental result shows that typical dislocation boundary structures, which depend on grains’ orientation, are formed in grains during bending. The microstructure of type A is mainly observed in grains near brass, copper, and Goss orientations; microstructure of type B is mainly found in grains near S orientation; microstructure of type C is mainly seen in grains near Cube orientation. The angle between geometrically necessary boundaries (GNBs) and force axis is in the range of −45° to −30° and 30° to 45°. Most of the GNBs are approximately parallel to the trace of {111} slip planes which are identified by Schmid factor analysis.

In this study, we examined the evolution of the texture and mechanical properties of 2060 (T8) alloy during bending. A pixel rotation method (PRM) was proposed and used to characterize the textural evolution during bending determined by electron backscatter diffraction. The results showed that the textural components changed insignificantly, with the exception of a decrease in the cube texture. The tensile and yielding properties of the alloy were evaluated at three different orientations with respect to the rolling direction. The mechanical strength was found to increase in three directions with decreasing bending radius; thus, it was concluded that the 2060 (T8) alloy sheet satisfies the usage requirement after bending deformation.

The microstructure evolution and damage development of the third-generation Al–Li alloy 2060 (T8) were studied using in situ bending tests. Specimens were loaded with a series of punches of different radii, and the microstructure evolution was studied by scanning electron microscopy, electron backscatter diffraction, and digital image correlation (DIC) methods. The evolution of the microscopic fracture strain distribution and microstructure in 2060 alloy during bending was characterized, where the dispersion distribution of precipitates was recorded by backscattered electron imaging and later inputted into a DIC system for strain calculations. The experimental results showed that strain localization in the free surface of bent specimens induced damage to the microstructure. The region of crack initiation lies on the free surface with maximum strain, and the shear crack propagates along the macro-shear band in the early stages of bending. Crack propagation in the later stages was interpreted on the basis of the conventional mechanism of ductile fracture.

The morphology changes induced by low energy deuterium ions on tungsten surfaces is studied for particle fluxes similar to those expected in the ITER divertor, as high as 1024 m−2 s−1. A new type of surface modifications by formation of nanostructures is observed to occur under those conditions. The nanostructures formation is critically dependent on the particle flux and ion energy, and affected by surface temperature and particle fluence. It correlates with the formation of nano-cavities at a depth of about 40 nm below the surface. In addition, the positron annihilation Doppler broadening (PADB) measurements reveal a significant increase of defect concentration (mostly vacancy-type) after plasma exposure, and the evolution of defects is in line with the surface morphology changes with fluence and surface temperature. The possible mechanism of cyclic trap mutation and dislocation loop punching due to high flux D exposure is discussed.

•Blisters were observed on W surface under He beam heating at ∼950 °C.•He-induced blistering shows a clear grain orientation dependence.•An evolution to a coral-like structure was observed under loading at ∼2700 °C.•A texture with 〈0 0 1〉 parallel to the surface normal direction will be beneficial.The effect of combined heating and helium particle flux on annealed tungsten samples has been studied in the neutral beam facility GLADIS. He beams with power densities of 2.4 MW/m2 and 9.5 MW/m2 were used to adiabatically load the samples to peak surface temperatures from ∼950 °C (1223 K) to ∼2700 °C (2973 K). Changes in the surface morphology resulting from combined heat and the flux exposure were studied for He fluences up to 3 × 1022/m2. Typical structures for the sample loaded at ∼950 °C (1223 K) were blisters with a clear grain orientation dependence and the largest blisters formed on grains with 〈0 0 1〉 surface normal. However at higher temperatures, blistering was more easily suppressed for grains near this orientation because the growth of larger blister takes place more slowly. An evolution from a “porous structure” to a “coral-like structure” with increasing fluence was observed on the samples loaded at the highest temperature. Based on these results mechanisms for surface modification at different temperatures are discussed and a texture with 〈0 0 1〉 parallel to the normal direction of the grains is suggested to optimize the plasma facing material due to their stronger resistance to early stage blistering.

Microstructure and room temperature strength of 9Cr–3W–3Co martensitic heat resistant steel after normalizing at 900–1200 °C for 1 h and then tempering at 750 °C for 1 h have been experimentally investigated using optical microscope (OM), field emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM), electron back-scattered diffraction (EBSD), field emission transmission electron microscope (FETEM) and tensile tests. The results show that with increasing normalizing temperature, the strength of the 9Cr–3W–3Co steel increases from 900 °C to 1000 °C, then keeps almost the same from 1000 °C to 1100 °C and finally increases again from 1100 °C to 1200 °C. The change in the room temperature strength can mainly be attributed to the change in precipitation strengthening. The size and the amount of particles after tempering are mainly due to the re-dissolution of particles during normalization. The higher the normalizing temperature is, the more the coarse particles formed during manufacturing will be re-dissolved, and then the larger the amount of fine particles precipitated during tempering is.

Surface modification by formation of blistering and nanostructures with pronounced orientation dependence has been observed on surfaces of rolled tungsten and recrystallized tungsten after exposure to a low energy (38 eV) deuterium (D) plasma with a high flux of 1024 m−2 s−1. The correlation between blisters and nanostructures with grain orientation was examined on recrystallized tungsten to exclude the influence of defects introduced during plastic deformation on the pattern of surface modification. The amount of blistering changed from the most in grains oriented close to 〈1 1 1〉 to the least in grains oriented close to 〈0 0 1〉. Three kinds of typical nanostructures were observed, with a clear dependence on grain orientation. Triangular structures were observed on grains oriented near the 〈1 1 1〉 corner of the inverse pole figure, with lamellar structures formed for grains oriented near the 〈0 1 1〉 corner, and spongy structures for grains near the 〈0 0 1〉 corner. Possible reasons for the orientation dependence of both the blisters and nanostructures are discussed.

Evolution of microstructures and high-temperature strength at 650 °C of 9Cr–3W–3Co martensitic heat resistant steel after aging at 650 °C and 700 °C for different time durations have been experimentally investigated using field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), field emission transmission electron microscopy (FETEM) and post-aged tensile tests. The results show that after aging at 650 °C, the high-temperature strength and the microstructures of 9Cr–3W–3Co steel keep almost stable with increasing aging time from 300 h to 3000 h. In comparison, after aging at 700 °C, there are obvious changes in the high-temperature strength and the microstructures. The strengthening mechanisms of the 9Cr–3W–3Co steel were also discussed and the athermal yield stresses were calculated. The change of the high-temperature strength is mainly affected by the evolution of dislocations and laths. The precipitates mainly act as obstacles against motion of dislocations and lath boundaries.

Tungsten (W) and tungsten-based materials are being considered to be used in the divertor and the first wall as plasma facing materials (PFMs) in the fusion reactor, which requires them to withstand the heat loads. The influence of grain boundaries on the heat flux has been studied by the molecular dynamics (MD) simulations in this paper. Various grain boundaries have been constructed in simulation cells and their lattice thermal conductivities (LTCs) and thermal resistances have been calculated. It turns out that there exist sharp temperature drops across these grain boundaries, indicating that the LTCs near grain boundaries are much smaller than those inside the bulk tungsten. The grain boundary effect on the LTCs of polycrystalline W samples has been analyzed by the combination of MD and finite element results. The results may be potentially helpful for the design of the international thermonuclear experimental reactor (ITER) and the choice of PFMs.

Tungsten (W) and tungsten-based materials are being considered to use in the Tokamak as the plasma-facing materials (PFMs) owing to their superior performance. Applicability of W in divertor regions which are exposed to high fluxes of helium and hydrogen isotope with the energy of below 100 eV, usually at a magnitude of a few eV, is concerned. In the present study, the interaction between low energetic hydrogen atoms and W surface with various crystallographic orientations as (1 1 0), (1 1 1), and (1 1 2) has been investigated by molecular dynamics (MD) simulations with a modified analytical bond order interatomic potential. Most of the incident hydrogen atoms may penetrate deep into W surface with the depth of 1–8 atomic layers. But most of these hydrogen atoms have been reflected. Some of the retention hydrogen atoms are adsorbed on the outside of W surface. Some energy was deposited in the W surface after the radiation. The particle reflection coefficient of W (1 1 0) is the largest one and the energy reflection coefficient of W (1 1 1) is the largest one among these calculated index surfaces. The results are potentially important for the analysis of the irradiation damage of tungsten.

A novel photodetector based on double-walled carbon nanotube (DWCNT) film/TiO2 nanotube array (TNA) heterojunctions was fabricated, which exhibited high photoresponse in a broad spectral range. The photoresponse of the detector was dramatically dependent on the length of the TNAs. High photocurrent-to-dark current ratio with a value of 3360 was observed in the visible range by optimizing the lengths of the TNAs. The photosensitive regions could be extended into the near-infrared range. These results reveal that DWCNT film/TNA heterojunctions show potential applications for broad band photodetectors.

An experimental apparatus that enables the simultaneous application of an alternating electric field and a stationary magnetic field was developed. Electromagnetic vibration was induced in a hypereutectic Al-Si alloy melt during solidification at a constant cooling rate. The results showed that the silicon particles collide with each other and agglomerate into clusters with the application of an electromagnetic vibration. With the increase of the electromagnetic force F, the sizes of the silicon clusters decrease and the clusters become more compact.

The feasibility and effectiveness of a novel combined magnetic field (CMF) on the removal of inclusions with a density smaller than the surrounding melt were investigated. The experiment of the separating effect of CMF was conducted on a laboratory-scale apparatus by the simultaneous application of a rotating magnetic field (RMF) and a downward traveling magnetic field (TMF). Primary silicon particles precipitating from the solidification process of Al-Si-Cu alloy were regarded as the inclusions in a molten aluminum alloy. It was found that a CMF consisting of both a RMF and a downward TMF was able to separate silicon particles from the molten Al-Si-Cu alloy by making these particles migrate vertically toward the upper part of the samples. Compared with downward TMF or RMF, CMF improved the separating effectiveness substantially. It was proposed that this type of CMF was approved to be highly effective at eliminating the inclusions with a density smaller than the surrounding molten alloy. A tentative mechanism for the high separating effect of CMF was discussed.

The effect of electromagnetic field on the removal of inclusions in the aluminum alloy was investigated. Primary silicon particles precipitating from the solidification of Al–Si hypereutectic alloy were regarded as inclusions. An experimental apparatus applied with both rotating magnetic field (RMF) and traveling magnetic field (TMF) was employed to study the distribution of silicon particles in Al–Si alloy under magnetic field. The results showed that combined magnetic field (CMF) consisting of RMF and TMF eliminated the silicon particles from the molten alloy. Compared with TMF or RMF, CMF increased the separating effectivity substantially. It was proposed that CMF provided a highly effective approach for metal purification.

The effects of a long-time austenization treatment on a high-speed steel (HSS) roll have been investigated. Several interesting phenomena were observed, including the decomposition of the primary bulky M3C carbides on grain boundaries and the precipitation of a large number of MC carbides of size comparable to the primary MC carbides in the grains. As a consequence of these changes, the overall carbide size decreased and the homogeneity of the carbide distribution increased. The wear resistance and thermal fatigue properties of the HSS roll were also investigated, and it was found that the long-time austenization treatment resulted in improvements to both properties.

The effects of an electrical field on recrystallization of Cu have been investigated. A 12° off exact (1 1 2) [1 1 1¯] copper single crystal was rolled to 80% reduction. Samples cut from the deformed material were then annealed for 1 h at temperatures of between 200 °C and 400 °C. For each temperature, samples were annealed either with or without the presence of an electrical field of intensity 1500 V/cm. The microstructures were investigated in the longitudinal plane by using the electron backscatter pattern technique. Results show that the application of an external electric field might promote the grain growth rate, and also promote the formation of Σ3 twin boundary.

The effects of an external electric field on cube texture development have been studied by means of electron backscatter pattern technique, using rolled nickel sheets of 99.999% purity. Samples were annealed at 300 °C for different times both without and with an external electric field, of intensity 2000 V/cm. Results show that the application of an external electric field has decreased the volume fraction of cube texture and the grain size of cube oriented grains.

The effects of an electric field on the microstructure of CAS (CaO·Al2O3·SiO2) has been studied. The structures of CAS glasses are discussed by magic angle spinning-nuclear magnetic resonance (MAS-NMR) analysis. It was discovered that an electric field promotes the process of phase separation in CAS glasses, and leads to a ladder-shaped distribution of the droplet phase. On the basis of this discussion, the reason of microstructural evolution resulting from ionic diffusion in an electric field has been proposed.