Three Paleogene syn-rift intervals from the Bohai Bay Basin, the most petroliferous basin in China, were analyzed with sedimentological and geochemical techniques to characterize the lateral source rock heterogeneities, to reveal the environmental and ecological changes through geologic time and to construct depositional models for lacustrine source rocks under different tectonic and climatic conditions. The third (Es3) and first (Es1) members of the Eocene Shahejie Formation and the Oligocene Dongying Formation (Ed) display widely variable total organic carbon contents, hydrogen indices and visual kerogen compositions, suggesting changes in organic facies from deep to marginal sediments. Carefully selected deep-lake facies samples from any interval, however, display fairly uniform biomarker composition. These three intervals have distinctly different biomarker assemblages, which indicate weakly alkaline, freshwater lakes with a moderately deep thermocline during Es3 deposition, alkaline-saline lakes with shallow chemocline during Es1 deposition and acidic, freshwater lakes with deep, unstable thermocline during the deposition of the Dongying Formation. Such environmental changes corresponded to changes in subsidence rate and paleoclimate, from rapid subsidence and wet climate during Es3 deposition, through slow subsidence and arid climate during Es1 deposition to rapid subsidence and wet climate during Ed deposition and resulted in synchronous changes in terrigenous organic matter input, phytoplankton community and primary productivity. The co-evolution of environments and organisms controlled by tectonic subsidence and climate accounted for the deposition and distribution of high quality lacustrine source rocks with distinctly different geochemical characteristics. Most rift basins experienced changes in subsidence rates and possibly changes in climates during their syn-rift evolutions. The models constructed in this paper may have important implications for source rock prediction in other lacustrine rift basins.

The origin of the fourteen major oil fields in the Bozhong sub-basin, Bohai Bay basin was studied based on the results of Rock-Eval pyrolysis on more than 700 samples and biomarker analysis on 61 source rock samples and 87 oil samples. The three possible source rock intervals have different biomarker assemblages and were deposited in different environments. The third member of the Oligocene Dongying Formation (E3d3, 32.8–30.3 Ma in age) is characterized mainly by high C19/C23 tricyclic terpane (>0.75), high C24 tetracyclic terpane/C26 tricyclic terpane (>2.5), low gammacerane/αβ C30 hopane (<0.15) and low 4-methyl steranes/ΣC29 steranes (<0.15) ratios, and was deposited in sub-oxic to anoxic environments with significant terrigenous organic matter input. The first (E2s1, 35.8–32.8 Ma) and third (E2s3, 43.0–38.0 Ma) members of the Eocene Shahejie Formation have low C19/C23 tricyclic terpane and low C24 tetracyclic terpane/C26 tricyclic terpane ratios and were deposited in anoxic environments with minor terrestrial organic matter input, but have different abundances of 4-methyl steranes and gammacerane. The hydrocarbon-generating potential and biomarker associations of these three source rock intervals were controlled by tectonic evolution of the sub-basin and climate changes. Three oil families derived from E2s3, E2s1 and E3d, respectively, and three types of mixed oils have been identified. All large oil fields in the Bozhong sub-basin display considerable heterogeneities in biomarker compositions and originated from more than one source rock interval, which suggests that mixing of oils derived from multiple source rock intervals or multiple generative kitchens, and/or focusing of oils originated from a large area of a generative kitchen, is essential for the formation of large oil fields in the Bozhong sub-basin. E2s3- and E2s1-derived oils experienced relatively long-distance lateral migration and accumulated in traps away from the generative kitchen. E3d3-derived oils had migrated short distances and accumulated in traps closer to the generative kitchen. Such a petroleum distribution pattern has important implications for future exploration. There is considerable exploration potential for Dongying-derived oils in the Bozhong sub-basin, and traps close to or within the generative kitchens have better chance to contain oils generated from the Dongying Formation.

This paper discusses origin and charging directions of oil fields on the Shaleitian Uplift, Bohai Bay basin. The Shaleitian Uplift is a footwall uplift surrounded by three sags containing mature source rocks. The origins of the four oil fields on the Shaleitian Uplift, both in terms of source rock intervals and in terms of generative kitchens, were studied using biomarker distributions for 61 source rock samples and 27 oil samples. Hierarchical cluster analysis using 12 parameters known to be effective indicators of organic matter input and/or depositional conditions allowed the identification of six oil types or classes. These six oil classes could then be linked to three distinct source rock intervals ranging in age from 43.0 Ma to 30.3 Ma. The third member (43.0–38.0 Ma in age) and first member (35.8–32.8 Ma) of the Eocene Shahejie Formation, and the third member of the Oligocene Dongying Formation (32.8–30.3 Ma) each sourced one class of oil. The other three classes represent mixtures of oil generated from multiple source rock intervals. Traps on the Shaleitian Uplift were charged in the east by oil generated from the Eocene Shahejie Formation in the Bozhong Sag, in the southeast by oil generated from the Eocene Shahejie and then Oligocene Dongying formations in the southwestern part of the Bozhong Sag and/or in the eastern part of the Shanan Sag, and in the southwest by oil generated from the Eocene Shahejie Formation in the western part of the Shanan Sag. The estimated migration distances range from less than 5 km to about 20 km. The compositional heterogeneity within fields and multiple-parameter comparisons between oils from nearby wells in different fields have proven to be a powerful tool to determine the in-filling histories of oil fields in cases where multiple source rock intervals and multiple generative kitchens exist.

•Geochemical anomalies of shale gases were characterized in detail.•A model was proposed to explain the observed geochemical anomalies of shale gases.•High TOC contents, high thermal maturity and late-stage closed system account for gas enrichment in shales.•Loss of free gases during post-generation evolution may result in gas depletion or even undersaturation in high-maturity organic-rich shales.This article reviews the abnormal characteristics of shale gases (natural gases produced from organic-rich shales) and discusses the cause of the anomalies and mechanisms for gas enrichment and depletion in high-maturity organic-rich shales. The reported shale gas geochemical anomalies include rollover of iso-alkane/normal alkane ratios, rollover of ethane and propane isotopic compositions, abnormally light ethane and propane δ13C values as well as isotope reversals among methane, ethane and propane. These anomalies reflect the complex histories of gas generation and associated isotopic fractionation as well as in-situ “mixing and accumulation” of gases generated from different precursors at different thermal maturities. A model was proposed to explain the observed geochemical anomalies. Gas generation from kerogen cracking at relatively low thermal maturity accounted for the increase of iso-alkane/normal alkane ratios and ethane and propane δ13C values (normal trend). Simultaneous cracking of kerogen, retained oil and wet gas and associated isotopic fractionation at higher maturity caused decreasing iso-alkane/normal alkane ratios, lighter ethane and propane δ13C and corresponding conversion of carbon isotopic distribution patterns from normal through partial reversal to complete reversal. Relatively low oil expulsion efficiency at peak oil generation, low expulsion efficiency at peak gas generation and little gas loss during post-generation evolution are necessary for organic-rich shales to display the observed geochemical anomalies. High organic matter richness, high thermal maturity (high degrees of kerogen-gas and oil-gas conversions) and late-stage (the stage of peak gas generation and post-generation evolution) closed system accounted for gas enrichment in shales. Loss of free gases during post-generation evolution may result in gas depletion or even undersaturation (total gas content lower than the gas sorption capacity) in high-maturity organic-rich shales.

This paper discusses migration styles and primary controls of petroleum migration pathways in heterogeneous carrier beds in Bozhong sub-basin, Bohai Bay basin. Modeling of secondary petroleum migration pathways has been conducted using a simple three-dimensional model, which assumes that the positions of petroleum migration pathways are controlled by the morphology of the sealing surfaces. The modeling results have accurately predicted the petroleum occurrences, and have been supported by petroleum geochemical studies. Most commercial petroleum accumulations are on the predicted preferential petroleum migration pathways (PPMP) formed by focusing of numerous “small petroleum streams” close to the kitchens, and most large fields (petroleum reserves greater than 1×108 ton) have more than one preferential petroleum migration pathway to convey petroleum to the traps. The focusing of petroleum originated from a large area of the generative kitchens into restricted channels is essential for the formation of large oilfields. The strong porosity and permeability heterogeneities of the carrier beds, and the relatively high prediction accuracy by a model that does not take into consideration of the effect of heterogeneity, suggest that the positions of petroleum migration pathways in heterogeneous carrier beds in the lacustrine fault basins are determined primarily by the morphology of the sealing surfaces at regional scales.

•The influence of thermal maturity on C19/C23 TT and C24 Tet/αβC30 hopane is minor.•E2w and E3e are proved to be the prime source rocks.•Three oil classes have been identified based on four effective biomarkers.•Oils occurrence is controlled by source rocks distribution and migration pathways.The origin of the seventeen major oil fields in the Zhu1 sub-basin, Pearl River Mouth Basin (PRMB) was studied based on the results of Rock–Eval pyrolysis on more than 370 samples and biomarker analysis on 31 source rock samples and 63 oil samples. The two possible source rock intervals have different biomarker assemblages and were deposited in different environments. The Wenchang Formation (E2w, 56.5–32 Ma) is characterized mainly by low C19/C23 tricyclic terpane (<2.0), low C24 tetracyclic terpane/αβC30 hopane (<0.06), low bicadinane-T/αβC30 hopane (<2.0) and high 4-methyl steranes/∑C29 steranes (most >0.4) ratios, and were deposited in anoxic to suboxic environments with important contribution from Pediastrum and Dinoflagellates. The Enping Formation (E3e, 32–30 Ma) has high C19/C23 tricyclic terpane, high C24 tetracyclic terpane/αβC30 hopane, widely variable yet overally high bicadinane-T/αβC30 hopane and low 4-methyl steranes/∑C29 steranes ratios, and were deposited in freshwater lacustrine to swamp conditions with significant terrigenous organic matter input. According to oil-source correlation, three oil classes can be identified in the Zhu1 sub-basin. Class 1 oil is E2w-derived and occurs widely. Class 2 oil is E3e-derived and refers to oils from F field in the north of the Huizhou depression. Class 3 oil is a mixture of oils generated from E2w and E3e, only distributed in the Huizhou depression and on its southern margin. The petroleum distribution pattern is mainly controlled by the distribution of source rocks and the migration pathways of oils. This research has important implications for future exploration.