•Sterylglucosides, glucosylated sterols, are found in many organisms.•Glucosylation dramatically changes the functional properties of sterols.•Sterylglucosides formation is catalyzed by glucocerebrosidases in mammals.•Sterylglucosides have a heterogeneous aglycon composition in vertebrate brain.•Sterylglucosides may have impacts on Gaucher disease and Parkinson’s disease.BackgroundSterols are major cell membrane lipids, and in many organisms they are modified with glucose to generate sterylglucosides. Glucosylation dramatically changes the functional properties of sterols. The formation of sterylglucosides from sterols in plants, fungi, and bacteria uses UDP-glucose as a glucose donor. By contrast, sterylglucoside biosynthesis in mammals is catalyzed by the transglucosylation activity of glucocerebrosidases, with glucosylceramide acting as the glucose donor. Recent success in isolation and structural determination of sterylglucosides in the vertebrate central nervous system shows that transglucosylation also occurs in vivo. These analyses also revealed that sterylglucoside aglycons are composed of several cholesterol-related metabolites, including a plant-type sitosteryl.Scope of reviewIn this review, we discuss the biological functions and metabolism of sterylglucosides. We also summarize new findings from studies on the metabolism of vertebrate sterylglucosides and review the circumstances underlying the recent discovery of sterylglucosides in vertebrate brain. Finally, we discuss the role of sterylglucosides in a variety of neurodegenerative disorders such as Gaucher disease and Parkinson’s disease.Major conclusionsThe biological significance of UDP-glucose-independent sterol glucosylation is still unknown, but it is plausible that glucosylation may provide sterols with novel biological functions. Even though sterol glucosylation is a simple reaction, it can dramatically change the physical properties of sterols.General significanceSterylglucosides may play roles in various physiological processes and in the pathogenesis of different diseases. Arriving at a better understanding of them at the organ and cellular level may open up new approaches to developing therapeutics for a variety of diseases. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled Neuro-glycoscience, edited by Kenji Kadomatsu and Hiroshi Kitagawa.

•ZIC-HILIC method was developed for isometric separation of mono-glucosylated lipids.•ZIC-HILIC preferentially retained glucose- followed by galactose-featuring lipids.•ZIC-HILIC reliably resolved lipids based on their carbohydrate and lipid moieties.•GlcCer in mouse brain samples was analyzed in the presence of excess GalCer.•GlcCer in skin was quantified based on a difference of an extra hydroxyl group.Mono-glycosylated sphingolipids and glycerophospholipids play important roles in diverse biological processes and are linked to a variety of pathologies, such as Parkinson disease. The precise identification of the carbohydrate head group of these lipids is complicated by their isobaric nature and by substantial differences in concentration in different biological samples. To overcome these obstacles, we developed a zwitterionic (ZIC)-hydrophilic interaction chromatography (HILIC) electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry method. ZIC-HILIC preferentially retains inositol, followed by glucose- and galactose-featuring lipids. Comparison with unmodified silica gel HILIC stationary phase revealed different retention specificity. To evaluate the precision of ZIC-HILIC, we quantified glucosyl- (GlcCer) and galactosylceramides (GalCer) in seven different regions of the mouse brain and discovered that GlcCer and GalCer concentrations are inversely related. The highest GalCer (lowest GlcCer) content was found in the medulla oblongata and hippocampus, whereas the highest GlcCer (lowest GalCer) content was found in other regions. With a neutral loss scan, ZIC-HILIC resolved glucosylceramide species featuring non-hydroxylated fatty acid, hydroxylated fatty acid, and trihydroxy sphingoid bases in mouse epidermis samples. This demonstrates that our ZIC-HILIC-based approach is a valuable tool for characterizing the structural diversity of mono-glucosylated lipids in biological material and for quantifying these important lipids.

Mice lacking an orphan G protein–coupled receptor show reduced inflammatory signaling and obesity.

Building upon the demonstrated presence of a new glyceroglycolipid, phosphatidylglucoside (PtdGlc), in rat embryonic brain tissues, we have developed a method to identify minute amounts of PtdGlc in cultured cells by using nano-flow high-performance liquid chromatography and negative-ion-mode electrospray linear-ion trap time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-MS). A normal-phase silica gel-based column enabled us to separate PtdGlc from other lipid classes. PtdGlc was identified from its tandem mass spectrometry spectrum and from its retention time in the column. Using an internal standard collection and LC-MS, we obtained the linearity of PtdGlc at a range of 6.3–800 fmol per injection. We applied this method to analyze quantitative changes in PtdGlc in C6 glioma cells after cellular differentiation into GFAP-positive glial cells. PtdGlc in C6 glioma cells consisted exclusively of C18:0/C20:0 fatty acyl chains. Differentiation induced by the addition of anti-PtdGlc antibody plus cAMP in culture medium significantly increased the glycolipid content.

Glucose, one of the most important nutrients for animals, acts as a regulatory signal that controls the secretion of hormones, such as insulin, by endocrine tissues. However, how organisms respond to extracellular glucose and how glucose controls nutrient homeostasis remain unknown. Here, we show that a putative Drosophila melanogaster G protein-coupled receptor, previously identified as Bride of sevenless (BOSS), responds to extracellular glucose and regulates sugar and lipid metabolism. We found that BOSS was expressed in the fat body, a nutrient-sensing tissue equivalent to mammalian liver and adipose tissues, and in photoreceptor cells. Boss null mutants had small bodies, exhibited abnormal sugar and lipid metabolism (elevated circulating sugar and lipid levels, impaired lipid mobilization to oenocytes), and were sensitive to nutrient deprivation stress. These phenotypes are reminiscent of flies defective in insulin signaling. Consistent with these findings are the observations that boss mutants had reduced PI3K activity and phospho-AKT levels, which indicates that BOSS is required for proper insulin signaling. Because human G protein-coupled receptor 5B and the seven-transmembrane domain of BOSS share the same sequence, our results also have important implications for glucose metabolism in humans. Thus, our study provides insight not only into the basic mechanisms of metabolic regulation but also into the pathobiological basis for diabetes and obesity.

The acetyl-CoA (Ac-CoA) transporter, ACATN is a multiple (11 or 12) transmembrane protein in the endoplasmic reticulum. Ac-CoA is transported into the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum/Golgi apparatus, where it serves as the substrate of acetyltransferases that modify a variety of molecules including the sialic acid residues of gangliosides and lysine residues of membrane proteins. The ACATN gene, assigned as SLC33A1, was cloned from human melanoma cells and encodes the ACATN/ACATN1 (Acetyl-CoA Transporter 1) protein. Although homologs of this family of proteins have been identified in lower organisms such as Escherichia coli, Drosophila melanogaster and Caenorhabditis elegans, only one member of this SLC33A1 family has been identified. Although acetylated gangliosides are synthesized in the luminal Golgi membrane and show a highly tissue-specific distribution, ACATN1 is enriched in the ER membrane and is ubiquitously expressed. Phylogenetically, the SLC33A1 gene is highly conserved, suggesting that it is particularly significant. In fact, ACATN1 is essential for motor neuron viability. SLC33A1 is associated with neurodegenerative disorders such as sporadic amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and Spastic Paraplegia 42, in the Chinese population.