The interdomain electron transfer (IET) between the flavin mononucleotide (FMN) and heme domains is essential in the biosynthesis of nitric oxide (NO) by the NO synthase (NOS) enzymes. A conserved tyrosine residue in the FMN domain (Y631 in human inducible NOS) was proposed to be a key part of the electron transfer pathway in the FMN/heme docked complex model. In the present study, the FMN–heme IET kinetics in the Y631F mutant and wild type of a bidomain oxygenase/FMN construct of human inducible NOS were determined by laser flash photolysis. The rate constant of the Y631F mutant is significantly decreased by ∼75% (compared to the wild type), showing that the tyrosine residue indeed facilitates the FMN–heme IET through the protein medium. The IET rate constant of the wild type protein decreases from 345 to 242 s–1 on going from H2O to 95% D2O, giving a solvent kinetic isotope effect of 1.4. In contrast, no deuterium isotope effect was observed for the Tyr-to-Phe mutant. Moreover, an appreciable change in the wild type iNOS IET rate constant value was observed upon changing pH. These results indicate that the FMN–heme IET is proton coupled, in which the conserved tyrosine residue may play an important role.

•Molecular dynamics simulations were conducted on an oxygenase/FMN construct of iNOS.•We provided the first computational evidence that the FMN/heme docking is redox dependent.•Predictions of the key interacting sites are well supported by experiments in the literature.•An intra-subunit pivot region correlates with existence of a conformational bottleneck.•The FMN domain motion facilitates directional electron transfer across the protein.Calmodulin (CaM) binding to nitric oxide synthase (NOS) enables a conformational change, in which the FMN domain shuttles between the FAD and heme domains to deliver electrons to the active site heme center. A clear understanding of this large conformational change is critical, since this step is the rate-limiting in NOS catalysis. Herein molecular dynamics simulations were conducted on a model of an oxygenase/FMN (oxyFMN) construct of human inducible NOS (iNOS). This is to investigate the structural rearrangements and the domain interactions related to the FMN–heme interdomain electron transfer (IET). We carried out simulations on the iNOS oxyFMN·CaM complex models in [Fe(III)][FMNH−] and [Fe(II)][FMNH] oxidation states, the pre- and post-IET states. The comparison of the dynamics and conformations of the iNOS construct at the two oxidation states has allowed us to identify key factors related to facilitating the FMN–heme IET process. The computational results demonstrated, for the first time, that the conformational change is redox-dependent. Predictions of the key interacting sites in optimal interdomain FMN/heme docking are well supported by experimental data in the literature. An intra-subunit pivot region is predicted to modulate the FMN domain motion and correlate with existence of a bottleneck in the conformational sampling that leads to the electron transfer-competent state. Interactions of the residues identified in this work are proposed to ensure that the FMN domain moves with appropriate degrees of freedom and docks to proper positions at the heme domain, resulting in efficient IET and nitric oxide production.Comparison of the dynamics and structures of an iNOS construct at two oxidation states identified key factors related to the FMN–heme interdomain electron transfer . The computational results demonstrated that the FMN domain motion is redox dependent. The interactions ensure that the FMN domain moves with appropriate degree of freedom.

Oxidation of l-arginine (l-Arg) to nitric oxide (NO) by NO synthase (NOS) takes place at the heme active site. It is of current interest to study structures of the heme species that activates O2 and transforms the substrate. The NOS ferrous–NO complex is a close mimic of the obligatory ferric (hydro)peroxo intermediate in NOS catalysis. In this work, pulsed electron–nuclear double resonance (ENDOR) spectroscopy was used to probe the hydrogen bonding of the NO ligand in the ferrous–NO heme center of neuronal NOS (nNOS) without a substrate and with l-Arg or N-hydroxy-l-arginine (NOHA) substrates. Unexpectedly, no H-bonding interaction connecting the NO ligand to the active site water molecule or the Arg substrate was detected, in contrast to the results obtained by X-ray crystallography for the Arg-bound nNOS heme domain [Li et al. J. Biol. Inorg. Chem. 2006, 11, 753−768]. The nearby exchangeable proton in both the no-substrate and Arg-containing nNOS samples is located outside the H-bonding range and, on the basis of the obtained structural constraints, can belong to the active site water (or OH). On the contrary, in the NOHA-bound sample, the nearby exchangeable hydrogen forms an H-bond with the NO ligand (on the basis of its distance from the NO ligand and a nonzero isotropic hfi constant), but it does not belong to the active site water molecule because the water oxygen atom (detected by 17O ENDOR) is too far. This hydrogen should therefore come from the NOHA substrate, which is in agreement with the X-ray crystallography work [Li et al. Biochemistry 2009, 48, 10246−10254]. The nearby nonexchangeable hydrogen atom assigned as Hε of Phe584 was detected in all three samples. This hydrogen atom may have a stabilizing effect on the NO ligand and probably determines its position.

The production of nitric oxide by the nitric oxide synthase (NOS) enzyme depends on the interdomain electron transfer (IET) between the flavin mononucleotide (FMN) and heme domains. Although the rate of this IET has been measured by laser flash photolysis (LFP) for various NOS proteins, no rigorous analysis of the relevant kinetic equations was performed so far. In this work, we provide an analytical solution of the kinetic equations underlying the LFP approach. The derived expressions reveal that the bulk IET rate is significantly affected by the conformational dynamics that determines the formation and dissociation rates of the docking complex between the FMN and heme domains. We show that in order to informatively study the electron transfer across the NOS enzyme, LFP should be used in combination with other spectroscopic methods that could directly probe the docking equilibrium and the conformational change rate constants. The implications of the obtained analytical expressions for the interpretation of the LFP results from various native and modified NOS proteins are discussed. The mathematical formulas derived in this work should also be applicable for interpreting the IET kinetics in other modular redox enzymes.

Nitric oxide (NO) production by mammalian NO synthase (NOS) is believed to be regulated by the docking of the flavin mononucleotide (FMN) domain in one subunit of the dimer onto the heme domain of the adjacent subunit. Glu546, a conserved charged surface residue of the FMN domain in human inducible NOS (iNOS), is proposed to participate in the interdomain FMN/heme interactions [Sempombe et al. Inorg. Chem.2011, 50, 6869–6861]. In the present work, we further investigated the role of the E546 residue in the FMN–heme interdomain electron transfer (IET), a catalytically essential step in the NOS enzymes. Laser flash photolysis was employed to directly measure the FMN–heme IET kinetics for the E546N mutant of human iNOS oxygenase/FMN (oxyFMN) construct. The temperature dependence of the IET kinetics was also measured over the temperature range of 283–304 K to determine changes in the IET activation parameters. The E546N mutation was found to retard the IET by significantly raising the activation entropic barrier. Moreover, pulsed electron paramagnetic resonance data showed that the geometry of the docked FMN/heme complex in the mutant is basically the same as in the wild type construct, whereas the probability of formation of such a complex is about twice lower. These results indicate that the retarded IET in the E546N mutant is not caused by an altered conformation of the docked FMN/heme complex, but by a lower population of the IET-active conformation. In addition, the negative activation entropy of the mutant is still substantially lower than that of the holoenzyme. This supports a mechanism by which the FMN domain can modify the IET through altering probability of the docked state formation.

Mammalian nitric oxide synthase (NOS), a flavo-hemoprotein, tightly regulates nitric oxide (NO) synthesis and thereby its dual biological activities as a key signaling molecule for vasodilatation and neurotransmission at low concentrations, and also as a defensive cytotoxin at higher concentrations. Three NOS isoforms, iNOS, eNOS and nNOS (inducible, endothelial, and neuronal NOS) achieve their key biological functions by tight regulation of interdomain electron transfer (IET) process via interdomain interactions. In particular, the FMN–heme IET is essential in coupling electron transfer in the reductase domain with NO synthesis in the heme domain by delivery of electrons required for O2 activation at the catalytic heme site. Compelling evidence indicates that calmodulin (CaM) activates NO synthesis in eNOS and nNOS through a conformational change of the domain from its shielded electron-accepting (input) state to a new electron-donating (output) state, and that CaM is also required for proper alignment of the domains in all the three NOS isoforms. Another exciting recent development in NOS enzymology is the discovery of importance of the FMN domain motions in modulating reactivity and structure of the catalytic heme active site (in addition to the primary role of controlling the IET processes). In the absence of a structure of full-length NOS, an integrated approach of spectroscopic (e.g. pulsed EPR, MCD, resonance Raman), rapid kinetics (laser flash photolysis and stopped flow) and mutagenesis methods is critical to unravel the molecular details of the interdomain FMN/heme interactions. This is to investigate the roles of dynamic conformational changes of the FMN domain and the docking between the primary functional FMN and heme domains in regulating NOS activity. The recent developments in understanding of mechanisms of the NOS regulation that are driven by the combined approach are the focuses of this review. An improved understanding of the role of interdomain FMN/heme interaction and CaM binding may serve as the basis for the design of new selective inhibitors of NOS isoforms.Highlights► Mammalian NOS enzyme is a homodimeric flavo-hemoprotein, and its catalysis is tightly regulated. ► A key question is how interdomain electron transfer is coupled to NO production. ► Absence of a full-length NOS structure justifies a combined spectroscopic and kinetics approach. ► Applications of laser flash photolysis and pulsed EPR to study of NOS FMN–heme complex are reviewed. ► Current understanding of mechanism of electron transfer and interdomain interaction in NOS regulation is discussed.

Mammalian nitric oxide synthases (NOSs) are enzymes responsible for oxidation of l-arginine (l-Arg) to nitric oxide (NO). Mechanisms of reactions at the catalytic heme site are not well understood, and it is of current interest to study structures of the heme species that activates O2 and transforms the substrate. The NOS ferrous–NO complex is a close mimic of the obligatory ferric (hydro)peroxo intermediate in NOS catalysis. In this work, pulsed electron–nuclear double resonance (ENDOR) was used to probe the position of the l-Arg substrate at the NO•-coordinated ferrous heme center(s) in the oxygenase domain of rat neuronal NOS (nNOS). The analysis of 2H and 15N ENDOR spectra of samples containing d7- or guanidino-15N2 labeled l-Arg has resulted in distance estimates for the nearby guanidino nitrogen and the nearby proton (deuteron) at Cδ. The l-Arg position was found to be noticeably different from that in the X-ray crystal structure of nNOS ferrous–NO complex [Li et al. J. Biol. Inorg. Chem.2006, 11, 753–768], with the nearby guanidino nitrogen being ∼0.5 Å closer to, and the nearby Hδ about 1 Å further from, the NO ligand than in the X-ray structure. The difference might be related to the structural constraints imposed on the protein by the crystal. Importantly, in spite of its closer position, the guanidino nitrogen does not form a hydrogen bond with the NO ligand, as evidenced by the absence of significant isotropic hfi constant for Ng1. This is consistent with the previous reports that it is not the l-Arg substrate itself that would most likely serve as a direct proton donor to the diatomic ligands (NO and O2) bound to the heme.

In the crystal structure of a calmodulin (CaM)-bound FMN domain of human inducible nitric oxide synthase (NOS), the CaM-binding region together with CaM forms a hinge, and pivots on an R536(NOS)/E47(CaM) pair (Xia et al. J Biol Chem 284:30708–30717, 2009). Notably, isoform-specific human inducible NOS S562 and C563 residues form hydrogen bonds with the R536 residue through their backbone oxygens. In this study, we investigated the roles of the S562 and C563 residues in the NOS FMN–heme interdomain electron transfer (IET), the rates of which can be used to probe the interdomain FMN/heme alignment. Human inducible NOS S562K and C563R mutants of an oxygenase/FMN (oxyFMN) construct were made by introducing charged residues at these sites as found in human neuronal NOS and endothelial NOS isoforms, respectively. The IET rate constant of the S562K mutant is notably decreased by one third, and its flavin fluorescence intensity per micromole per liter is diminished by approximately 24 %. These results suggest that a positive charge at position 562 destabilizes the hydrogen-bond-mediated NOS/CaM alignment, resulting in slower FMN–heme IET in the mutant. On the other hand, the IET rate constant of the C563R mutant is similar to that of the wild-type, indicating that the mutational effect is site-specific. Moreover, the human inducible NOS oxyFMN R536E mutant was constructed to disrupt the bridging CaM/NOS interaction, and its FMN–heme IET rate was decreased by 96 %. These results demonstrated a new role of the isoform-specific serine residue of the key CaM/FMN(NOS) bridging site in regulating the FMN–heme IET (possibly by tuning the alignment of the FMN and heme domains).

The FMN-heme interdomain (intraprotein) electron transfer (IET) kinetics in full length and oxygenase/FMN (oxyFMN) construct of human iNOS were determined by laser flash photolysis over the temperature range from 283 to 304 K. An appreciable increase in the rate constant value was observed with an increase in the temperature. Our previous viscosity study indicated that the IET process is conformationally gated, and Eyring equation was thus used to analyze the temperature dependence data. The obtained magnitude of activation entropy for the IET in the oxyFMN construct is only one-fifth of that for the holoenzyme. This indicates that the FMN domain in the holoenzyme needs to sample more conformations before the IET takes place, and that the FMN domain in the oxyFMN construct is better poised for efficient IET.Highlights► The FMN-heme IET kinetics in full length and truncated oxygenase/FMN construct iNOS proteins were determined at 283–304 K. ► This is the first study of temperature dependence of the NOS IET kinetics. ► Eyring equation was used to analyze the temperature dependence data. ► The magnitude of activation entropy for the IET in the oxygenase/FMN construct is only one-fifth of that for the holoenzyme. ► The results indicate that the FMN domain in the holoenzyme needs to sample more conformations before the IET takes place.