An important feature of ecosystem service interaction is that it changes over time and across spatial scales.This research aims to find which ecosystem service interactions temporally vary and depend on spatial scale.We calculated six ecosystem services of the Baota District on the central Loess Plateau of China for 2000, 2005, and 2010. Furthermore, we quantified the interactions among these services at the beginning and after the end of the first phase of the Grain for Green Program in this area, and across the pixel scale of 1 km2 and the town scale.Water yield decreased significantly, and habitat quality, net primary productivity, and evapotranspiration increased significantly across different land use types from 2000 to 2005. The synergy between food productivity and water yield, and the trade-off between water yield and evapotranspiration, greatly reduced from 2000 to 2010 at the pixel scale. Water yield was a trade-off to habitat quality, NPP, and recreation capacity in 2000 at the pixel scale while a synergy to the three services in 2010. The synergies between habitat quality and NPP, evapotranspiration, and recreation capacity at the pixel scale were enhanced from 2000 to 2010. Changes in the direction or significance of correlations among ecosystem services were observed across the pixel and town scales in 2000 and 2010.This study contributes to increasing the understanding of the temporal variation of ecosystem service interactions caused by regional ecological restoration programs, and the spatial scale dependency of the interactions.

•A composite index to assess large-scale restoration effectiveness is formulated.•Temporal scale is the crucial factor in representing restoration effectiveness.•The effects of socio-economic factors on restoration effectiveness vary with time.•Tertiary industry absorbing the rural labor force could alleviate population pressure.•Improving the rural economy fundamentally could enhance restoration effectiveness.Large-scale ecological restoration has been widely accepted globally as an effective strategy for combating environmental crises and to facilitate sustainability. Assessing the effectiveness of ecological restoration is vital for researchers, practitioners, and policy-makers. However, few practical tools are available to perform such tasks, particularly for large-scale restoration programmes in complex socio-ecological systems. By taking a “before and after” design, this paper formulates a composite index (Ej) based on comparing the trends of vegetation cover and vegetation productivity to assess ecological restoration effectiveness. The index reveals the dynamic and spatially heterogenic process of vegetation restoration across different time periods, which can be informative for ecological restoration management at regional scales. Effectiveness together with its relationship to socio-economic factors is explored via structural equation modeling for three time periods. The results indicate that the temporal scale is a crucial factor in representing restoration effectiveness, and that the effects of socio-economic factors can also vary with time providing insight for improving restoration effectiveness. A dual-track strategy, which promotes the development of tertiary industry in absorbing the rural labor force together with improvements in agricultural practices, is proposed as a promising strategy for enhancing restoration effectiveness. In this process, timely and long-term ecological restoration monitoring is advocated, so that the success and sustainability of such programmes is ensured, together with more informative decision making where socio-ecological interactions at differing temporal scales are key concerns.Download high-res image (283KB)Download full-size image

Landscape transition drives environmental change across the globe. However, landscape and its change are complex with high spatial heterogeneity, which challenges strategic decision-making.This paper aims to derive management meaningful units based on landscape status and change analysis and the generalization of landscape spatial heterogeneity.Based on contrasting cases from Finland (Vanajavesi) and China (Baota District), this paper analyzed the landscape attributes and change since 2000. A k-means clustering approach was used to generalize the landscape types based on indicators of landscape composition and its change, spatial pattern, population, and income.Most significant change in land covers was the expansion of artificial surfaces, and the bi-directional transitions between agricultural areas and forests and semi-natural areas in Vanajavesi, while the expansion of artificial land and shrinkage of cropland were most significant in Baota District. Larger changes in landscape metrics were also observed in Baota District. Finally, three landscape clusters were generalized in both of the case areas. For each cluster, the landscapes and their change characteristics were interpreted as pertinent to the average land cover pattern and its change and socioeconomic conditions. Brief landscape management recommendations were also given for the resulting clusters.This paper contributes to enriching the understanding of the analysis and management of landscape spatial heterogeneity based on the information from both landscape status and change. The contrasting case analyses from an international perspective indicate the usefulness of clustering approach in accommodating spatial heterogeneity, which imply a regionalized need for landscape monitoring, assessment, and management.

Land use and ecosystem services need to be assessed simultaneously to better understand the relevant factors in sustainable land management. This paper analyzed land use changes in the middle reach of the arid Heihe River Basin in northwest China over the last two decades and their impacts on water resources and soil organic carbon (SOC) storage. The results indicated that from 1986 to 2007: (1) cropland and human settlements expanded by 45.0 and 17.6 %, respectively, at the expense of 70.1, 35.7, and 4.1 % shrinkage on woodland, grassland, and semi-shrubby desert; (2) irrigation water use was dominant and increased (with fluctuations) at an average rate of 8.2 %, while basic human water consumption increased monotonically over a longer period from 1981 to 2011 at a rate of 58 %; and (3) cropland expansion or continuous cultivation led to a significant reduction of SOC, while the land use transition from grassland to semi-shrubby desert and the progressive succession of natural ecosystems such as semi-shrubby desert and grassland, in contrast, can bring about significant carbon sequestration benefits. The increased water consumption and decreased SOC pool associated with some observed land use changes may induce and aggravate potential ecological risks for both local and downstream ecosystems, including water resource shortages, soil quality declines, and degeneration of natural vegetation. Therefore, it is necessary to balance socioeconomic wellbeing and ecosystem services in land use planning and management for the sustainability of socio-ecological systems across spatiotemporal scales, especially in resource-poor arid environments.

•A redline paradigm has evolved in environmental governance for the greening of China.•Overlaps exist among current conservation redlines that compete with other land uses.•Such overlaps and competitions lead to conflicts violating redline practicality.•We provided four recommendations for ensuring redline management effectiveness.Conservation-development conflicts are problems that challenge global society and are important issues for conservation ecology research. A redline paradigm has evolved at the central government level in China as a new attempt for better resolution of conservation and development conflicts, including redlines for cropland conservation, forestland conservation and development, prohibited development zones, restricted development zones, and key ecological function zones. However, significant overlaps among these redlines and other land resource demands are key sources of hot debates about practicality. To advance the redline paradigm as a practical resource and environmental management tool, we propose recommendations including (1) strengthening the executive capacity of redline management by rule of law, (2) developing closer collaborations among different governmental sectors, (3) creating multi-source economic incentives through payment schemes for environmental services, and (4) promoting public participation. The advancement of the redline paradigm in China may serve as an example of conflict resolution for other nations.

•Biophysical indicators were formulated to map ecosystem services (ESs) in China.•These indicator-based models can reveal the relative order of ESs required for large-scale mapping.•Land-use change plays a critical role in the significant increase of total ESs in China from 2000 to 2010.Spatially explicit mapping of ecosystem services (ESs) is an essential step in drawing up policies and practices designed to improve human well-being by ensuring the sustainable provision of ESs. This study used a set of quantitative surrogate biophysical indicators to map the capability of China's eleven ecoregions to provide four types of ESs (carbon capture, soil protection, water purification and provision, and habitat provision) from 2000 to 2010. The results revealed the spatial distribution patterns and time trends of the ESs of the eleven ecoregions in China. This study shows that: (1) the average annual total value of ESs provided from 2000 to 2010 increased from northwest to southeast, and in the Middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River as well as over the entirety of the Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau and South China ecoregions; (2) the temporal trends of annual total ESs from 2000 to 2010 showed increases in most ecoregions except those of northeast China and northern China, which experienced decreases; and (3) the surrogate biophysical method for mapping the spatial and temporal characteristics of ESs gives acceptable results, especially at large spatial scales, compared to research results obtained using more complex modeling approaches. Thus the simple surrogate approach is suitable for the rapid assessment and long-term dynamic surveillance of ESs at broad spatial scales, and for tasks such as priority setting or performance assessments for nature conservation and ecological restoration with ESs as key targets. The methodology is also suitable for land-use impact analysis and trade-off analysis concerning land-use decisions in terrestrial environments.

Study regionThe Qilian Mountain, northwestern China.Study focusLand degradation is a global eco-environmental issue. To minimize soil erosion and land degradation, China has implemented several ecological engineering such as “Grain for Green” program (GFG) since 1999. Relationship between vegetation and water budgets in catchments has been widely studied, however very few studies addressed the effects of eco-environmental restoration on water balance in mountain areas, especially with a focus on soil moisture content. Therefore SWAT model was used to quantify the effects of ecological engineering actions (taken place in 2005) on water balance in Qilian Mountain.New hydrological insights for the regionAfter the ecological engineering, water yield and soil water content experienced an increment of 32%, and 46%. The opposite trend was monitored in runoff and evapotranspiration, which decreased by 48% and 4%, respectively. Therefore ecosystem restoration have increased soil water retention capacity, a greater proportion of precipitation reaching the catchment is absorbed by the soil rather than flowing out of the region as runoff. Therefore trade-offs between environmental sustainability and water resources security should be carefully addressed in arid region that experienced severe water shortages.

•Qinghai spruce forest has among the greatest regulating abilities.•Shrubland at high altitudes is the most important runoff supply area.•Ecosystem management should consider eco-hydrology differences of ecosystems.Hydrological service by soil under mountain ecosystems is a hot topic in current ecological research. We monitored the precipitation and soil moisture dynamics and measured the soil hydrological parameters of grassland and forest ecosystems along an elevation gradient in the Dayekou catchment of the central Qilian Mountains in northwestern China. Soil moisture dynamics in response to rainfall events exhibit different characteristics with different ecosystems and at different elevations. The soil conditions (including soil texture, soil structure, and soil hydrological parameters), the local meteorological condition, and the physiological characteristics of the vegetation can help explain eco-hydrological differences. The total rainfall increased with an increase in elevation across the rainy season. Soil moisture content increased with an increase in altitude and differs with land cover on average values. Grassland and forest at low elevations have 50% and 41.7% of the soil moisture content level under shrubland at high elevations, and Qinghai spruce forest soil has the greatest “green water (the water used mainly by the ecosystem itself)” capacity. Fluctuation in soil moisture diminishes with increased depth, yet the trend is not obvious under shrubland at high elevations. The sensitivity of soil moisture response to rainfall differed depending on land cover and soil depth. Soil moisture under alpine shrubland is far more sensitive to single rainfall events, whereas other land-cover types display only typical responses in periods of frequent rainfall events (continued-rainfall scale). The study of soil moisture dynamics contributes to research on hydrological service in mountain ecosystems, and is helpful in promoting knowledge innovation regarding the relationship between water and ecosystems.

Check dams have been widely used globally as human introduced structures for watershed management for various purposes. However, the effects of these structures for carbon retention have been scarcely considered and quantified. This research formulated a simple approach in estimating the carbon retention effects of check dams in Yan’an prefecture of the Loess Plateau region of China based on check dam inventory data and benefit transfer approach. Results indicated that the large and medium sized check dams had retained about 42.3 million tons of soil organic carbon (SOC) with a high spatial variability. This is a significant amount similar to about 1.48% of the SOC stored in the 0–40 cm soil layer across the whole Loess Plateau or roughly 4% of the estimated carbon emission from fossil fuel in China in 2000. Total volume of check dam is the most important influencing factor for carbon retention effects at both check dam and county-levels. Years after construction is also a significant factor at check dam level. The numbers of check dams and land use as well as topographical factors have impacts on the respect of check dam carbon retention of varied significance at the county-level. The effectiveness of carbon retention decreased from north to south. The results of this research can be used as important decision support for check dam development planning at the local context. This research also revealed the scientific worthiness in quantifying the carbon retention effects concerning the relationships between soil erosion and carbon cycling. On this respect, process-based monitoring and research are urgently in need.Highlights► We formulated simple methods for estimating carbon retentions by check dams. ► Carbon retention by check dams was found to be significant at regional scale. ► Carbon retention varied spatially and correlated with dam as well as land surface attributes.