The effects of esterified lactoferrin (ELF) and lactoferrin (LF) on blue mold caused by Penicillium expansum in apple fruit stored at 25 °C were investigated. Both ELF and LF provided an effective control and strongly inhibited spore germination and germ tube elongation of P. expansum in vitro. Assessment by propidium iodide staining combined with fluorescent microscopy revealed that the plasma membrane of P. expansum spores was damaged more seriously by ELF than by LF treatment, and the leakage of protein and sugar was higher from ELF-treated mycelia. Interestingly, ELF treatment induced a significant increase in the activities of chitinase, β-1,3-glucanase, and peroxidase in apple fruit, whereas both LF treatment and the control showed no obvious difference. These findings indicated that the effects of ELF on blue mold in apple fruit might be associated with the direct fungitoxic property against the pathogens and the elicitation of defense-related enzymes in fruit.

1,3-Dichloropropene (1,3-D) was evaluated as a potential alternative for the widely used soil fumigant methyl bromide (MeBr) in cucumber (Cucumis sativus Linn.) crops in China. Six treatments were replicated five times in a randomized complete block design: fumigation with MeBr (400 kg·ha−1), three 1,3-D doses (90, 120, and 180 L·ha−1), an avermectin dose (7.5 L·ha−1), and a nontreated control. Results consistently indicated that MeBr was generally superior to the treatments involving all 1,3-D and avermectin, which in turn were superior to the control, for improving cucumber yield and to control nematode and weed. In two successive seasons, 1,3-D at a dose of 180 L·ha−1 was as effective as MeBr in increasing plant height, vigor, and yield, as well as showed excellent nematode control efficiency, but it had relatively poor potency to control weeds. The present data support the conclusion that 1,3-D is a promising MeBr alternative for managing nematodes and weeds in cucumber crops and can be used in integrated pest management programs.

1,3-Dichloropropene (1,3-D, C3H4Cl2) is a potential candidate as a soil disinfectant because of the restriction of methyl bromide (MeBr) in soil fumigation due to its ecological risk. Field trials were conducted to ascertain the efficiency of 1,3-D as a MeBr alternative in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) and evaluate its application prospects in China. Five treatments were replicated five times in a randomized complete block design: fumigation with MeBr (400 kg ha−1), three 1,3-D doses (180, 120, and 90 L ha−1), an avermectin dose (7.5 L ha−1), and a nontreated control. Results consistently indicated that MeBr was generally superior to the treatments involving all 1,3-D levels and avermectin, which in turn were superior to the control, for improving tomato yield and inhibiting nematode, weed, and mortality caused by plant disease. In both seasons, 1,3-D at the dose of 180 L ha−1 was as effective as MeBr in increasing plant height, vigor, and tomato yield and in reducing the incidence of soilborne disease, especially in maintaining excellent nematode control efficiency, but it provided relatively poor control over weeds. On the basis of these results, 1,3-D, in combination with other alternatives to MeBr, is recommended to achieve integrated pest management.

The fitness cost of spinosad resistance was investigated in the cotton bollworm, Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). Laboratory experiments were conducted to compare relative fitness of H. armigera between the spinosad-susceptible and -resistant strains. During the experiments, the average development periods of the resistant strain were lengthened by 4–5 days, reflected in a prolongation of egg, larval and pupal periods. Furthermore, pupal survival, pupal weight, the mean life span of emerged adults, eggs laid and hatched decreased greatly in the resistant strain in comparison with the susceptible strain. Other life-cycle parameters such as larval survival, larval wet weights, prepupal periods, pupation ratio, and sex ratio did not change significantly. As a result, both net replacement rate (R0) and intrinsic rate of increase (rm) were reduced for the resistant strain. Our results clearly indicated that relative fitness of resistant individuals was reduced in the absence of spinosad. Rational measures including pesticide rotations should be expected to delay development of resistance to spinosad in H. armigera field populations from China.

A Helicoverpa armigera population was collected from Shandong province, China. After 15 generations of selection in the laboratory, the H. armigera strain developed more than 20-fold resistance to spinosad. At LD50 level, no significant cross-resistance was found between spinosad and chlorpyrifos, methomyl, avermectin and chlorfenapyr except for fenvalerate with a low cross-resistance of 2.4-fold. However, LD99 values of fenvalerate against the parental and resistant strains were not different significantly. After inhibitors were used, spinosad resistance could be partially suppressed by piperonylbutoxide (PBO) and triphenylphosphate (TPP), but not by diethylmaleate (DEM). Activities of p-nitroanisole O-demethylase (ODM) developed to 8.26-fold compared with the parental strain, but no obvious changes were found in activities of carboxyl esterase (CarE) and glutathione-S-transferase (GST). The results indicated that resistance to spinosad in the cotton bollworm might be associated with an increase in cytochrome P450 monooxygenase.

Calcium phosphide (Ca3P2) is a widely used fumigant due to its ability to kill a broad spectrum of stored-grain insect pests and its easy penetration into the commodity while leaving minimal residues. Field experiments were conducted to evaluate the efficacy of Ca3P2 as a potential methyl bromide (MeBr) alternative in tomato crops in China. Five treatments were replicated five times in a randomized complete block design: application with MeBr (400 kg ha−1), three Ca3P2 rates (37.5, 75.0 and 112.5 kg ha−1), an avermectin rate (7.5 L ha−1), and an untreated control. Our results consistently indicated that MeBr was generally superior to the treatments including Ca3P2 and avermectin, which in turn were superior to the control, for increasing plant growth, inhibiting Meloidogyne incognita infestation and improving plant yield. In both of the field trials, Ca3P2 at a rate of 112.5 kg ha−1 was as effective as MeBr in increasing plant height, plant yield and in maintaining excellent M. incognita control efficacy. The present data support the conclusion that Ca3P2 is a promising MeBr alternative for managing M. incognita in tomato crops and can be used in integrated pest management programs.Highlights► Our study finds a new use for calcium phosphide, which may be possible to extend the product's life cycle. ► Our results provide some practical information for evaluating application prospects of calcium phosphide in China. ► Our study adds significant information from trials in China, thus providing literature that is lacking from this country.

Aluminium phosphide (AlP) is a widely used fumigant due to its ability to kill a broad spectrum of stored-grain insect pests and its easy penetration into the commodity while leaving minimal residues. Field trials were conducted to ascertain the efficacy of AlP as a methyl bromide (MeBr) alternative in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.). Six treatments were replicated five times in a randomized complete block design: fumigation with MeBr (400 kg ha−1), three AlP doses (18.75, 37.50 and 56.25 kg ha−1), an avermectin dose (7.5 L ha−1), and a non-treated control. Results consistently indicated that MeBr was generally superior to the treatments involving all AlP and avermectin, which in turn were superior to the control, for improving tomato yield, inhibiting nematode and weed. In two successive seasons, AlP at the dose of 56.25 kg ha−1 was as effective as MeBr in increasing plant height and vigor as well as maintaining excellent tomato yield, but it providing relatively medium control over nematode and weeds. The present data support the conclusion that AlP is a promising alternative to MeBr for managing nematodes and weeds in tomato crop and can be used effectively in integrated pest management programs.Highlights► Our study finds a new use for aluminium phosphide, which may be possible to extend the product's life cycle. ► Our results provide some practical information for evaluating application prospects of aluminium phosphide in China. ► Our study adds significant information from trials in China, thus providing literature that is lacking from this country.

Lactoferrin (LF), an 80 kDa iron binding glycoprotein, was effective in the control of gray mould caused by Botrytis cinerea on tomato. LF strongly inhibited spore germination and germ tube elongation of B. cinerea in vitro, especially at 100 mg/L. When viewed by fluorescence microscopy following staining with propidium iodide, the membrane integrity of B. cinerea conidia treated with LF (50 mg/L) decreased to 68% at 2 h. The leakage of carbohydrate and protein from mycelia increased as the dose of LF increased compared with the untreated controls. Furthermore, methane dicarboxylic aldehyde (MDA) content in B. cinerea spores exposed to LF increased markedly. The activities of superoxide dismutase and catalase in spores treated with LF were also 1.3, twice as high as those in the control at 6 h, whereas ATP content was 1.5 times lower. In planta assays demonstrated that LF exhibited significant curative effect (76.3%, 100 mg/L) against gray mould, compared with the preventive effect (52.6%, 100 mg/L). The mechanisms by which LF decreased gray mould decay of tomato plant may be directly related to the severe damage to the conidia plasma membrane and loss of cytoplasmic materials from the hyphae. These findings suggest that LF has potential as an antifungal agent to reduce the severity of gray mould of tomato plants.Highlights► LF strongly inhibited spore germination and germ tube elongation of B. cinerea. ► The inhibitory effects may be directly related to the severe damage to the cell membrane. ► LF increased markedly the methane dicarboxylic aldehyde (MDA) content in B. cinerea.